Mod (from modernist) is a subculture that originated in London, England in the late 1950s and peaked in the early-to-mid 1960s.[1][2][3]

Significant elements of the mod subculture include: fashion (often tailor-made suits); pop music, including African American soul, Jamaican ska, and British beat music and R&B; and Italian motor scooters. The original mod scene was also associated with amphetamine-fuelled all-night dancing at clubs.[4] From the mid-to-late 1960s onwards, the mass media often used the term mod in a wider sense to describe anything that was believed to be popular, fashionable or modern.

History

Dick Hebdige claims that the progenitors of the mod subculture "appear to have been a group of working-class dandies, possibly descended from the devotees of the Italianite [fashion] style."[8] Mary Anne Long disagrees, stating that "first hand accounts and contemporary theorists point to the Jewish upper-working or middle-class of London’s East End and suburbs."[9] Sociologist Simon Frith asserts that the mod subculture had its roots in the 1950s beatnik coffee bar culture, which catered to art school students in the radical bohemian scene in London.[10] Steve Sparks, who claims to be one of the original mods, agrees that before mod became commercialised, it was essentially an extension of the beatnik culture: "It comes from ‘modernist’, it was to do with modern jazz and to do with Sartre" and existentialism.[9] Sparks argues that "Mod has been much misunderstood... as this working-class, scooter-riding precursor of skinheads."

Coffee bars were attractive to youths, because in contrast to typical British pubs, which closed at about 11 pm, they were open until the early hours of the morning. Coffee bars had jukeboxes, which in some cases reserved some of the space in the machines for the students' own records. In the late 1950s, coffee bars were associated with jazz and blues, but in the early 1960s, they began playing more R&B music. Frith notes that although coffee bars were originally aimed at middle-class art school students, they began to facilitate an intermixing of youths from different backgrounds and classes.[11] At these venues, which Frith calls the "first sign of the youth movement", youths would meet collectors of R&B and blues records, who introduced them to new types of African-American music, which the teens were attracted to for its rawness and authenticity. They also watched French and Italian art films and read Italian magazines to look for style ideas.[12] According to Hebdige, the mod subculture gradually accumulated the identifying symbols that later came to be associated with the scene, such as scooters, amphetamine pills, and music.

The early skinheads retained basic elements of mod fashion — such as Fred Perry and Ben Sherman shirts, Sta-Prest trousers and Levi's jeans — but mixed them with working class-oriented accessories such as braces and Dr. Martens work boots. Hebdige claims that as early as the Margate and Brighton brawls between mods and rockers, some mods were seen wearing boots and braces and sporting close cropped haircuts, which "artificially reproduces the texture and appearance of the short negro hair styles" (though this was as much for practical reasons, as long hair was a liability in industrial jobs and streetfights).[17] It was also a reaction to middle class hippie aesthetics.

Mods and ex-mods were also part of the early northern soul scene, a subculture based on obscure 1960s and 1970s American soul records. Some mods evolved into, or merged with, subcultures such as individualists, stylists, and scooterboys, creating a mixture of "taste and testosterone" that was both self-confident and streetwise.

Revival

A mod revival started in the late 1970s in the United Kingdom, with thousands of mods attending scooter rallies in places like Scarborough and the Isle of Wight. This revival was partly inspired by the 1979 film Quadrophenia and by mod-influenced bands such as The Jam, Secret Affair, Purple Hearts and The Chords. Many of the mod revival bands were influenced by the energy of British punk rock and New Wave music. The British revival was followed by a mod revival in North America in the early 1980s, particularly in Southern California, led by bands such as The Untouchables.[5][6] The mod scene in Los Angeles and Orange County was partly influenced by the 2 Tone ska revival in England, and was unique in its racial diversity, with black, white, Hispanic and Asian participants. The 1990s Britpop scene featured noticeable mod influences on bands such as Oasis, Blur, Ocean Colour Scene and The Verve.

The casual movement is a subsection of association football culture that is typified by football hooliganism and the wearing of expensive European designer clothing.

The subculture originated in the U.K in the late 1970s when many hooligans began wearing designer clothes and expensive sportswear in order to avoid the attention of police. They did not wear club colours, so it was easier to infiltrate rival groups and to enter pubs.

Music genres popular among casuals in the late 1970s included: mod revival, postpunk, Oi! and ska. By the 1980s, casuals' music tastes were eclectic, with some enjoying pop groups such as Wham!, ABC, The Human League, Spandau Ballet and Adam and the Ants. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, many casuals were part of the Madchester and rave scenes, and in the 1990s, many were fans of Britpop including bands such as Oasis,Blur, The Verve, The Prodigy, etc. There was a strong crossover with rave culture, with many ravers wearing football casual brands but distanced from football hooliganism. Madchester bands sometimes wore casual clothing on stage and in publicity photographs, as did Britpop acts such as Blur in their video for "Parklife". Since then, the most popular genre among casuals has been indie rock.

History

British football support has had a strong fashion-led subculture element since the rise of the Teddy Boys in the mid 1950s.

This continued with the mods of the early 1960s, the skinheads of the late 1960s (and later), and the mod revivalists of the late 1970s.

The casual subculture started in the late 1970s after Liverpool fans introduced the rest of England to European fashions that they acquired while following their team at their 1977 European Cup quarter final against the French side St Etienne.

These Liverpool fans returned in England with expensive Italian and French designer sportswear, most of which they stole from stores.

The supporters brought back many unique clothing brands that had not been seen in the country before.

Soon other fans were clamoring for these rare items of clothing, such as Lacoste or Sergio Tacchini shirts, and unusual Adidas trainers, which are still associated with Liverpool supporters today. At the time, many police forces were still on the lookout for skinhead fans wearing Dr. Martens boots, and paid no attention to fans in expensive designer clothing.

Clothing labels associated with casuals in the 1980s include: Fila, Stone Island, Fiorucci, Pepe, Benetton, Sergio Tacchini, Ralph Lauren, Henri Lloyd, Lyle & Scott, Adidas, Ben Sherman, Fred Perry, Lacoste, Kappa, Pringle, Peter Storm, Burberry, Reebok and Slazenger. Fashion trends frequently changed, and the casual subculture reached its peak in the late 1980s.

With the arrival of the acid house, rave and Madchester scenes, the violence of the casual subculture faded to a large extent.

Music

The casuals continued listening to most of the bands the mods used to enjoy. The casual movement enjoyed in the 90s mostly Britpop bands such as Oasis, Blur, Pulp, The Prodigy, Ocean Colour Scene, Paul Weller among others.

The Casual Movement is a subsection of association football culture that is typified by football hooliganism and the wearing of expensive European designer clothing.